Mg, Si, Al, and P Particle-Doped Epoxy: A Synergistic Approach for Enhanced Fire Performance
Downloads
This study presents the development of a low-toxicity, high-performance intumescent fire-retardant coating (IFRC) through a hybrid epoxy binder doped with Mg, Si, Al, and P particles. The objective was to improve thermal stability and char cohesion and reduce the toxic aromatic emissions typically released from bisphenol-A epoxy systems during combustion. Modified epoxy resins were prepared by dispersing Mg(OH)₂ and incorporating hydroxyl-terminated PDMS, followed by formulation with APP, melamine, expandable graphite, PER, and nano-alumina. Comprehensive analyses using FTIR, ¹³C NMR, DSC, TGA, SEM–EDS, TEM, XRD, and GC–MS, along with ISO-834 furnace and ASTM E-119 flame tests, were employed to evaluate chemical structure, thermal behavior, char morphology, and fire performance. The optimized formulation produced a dense Mg–Al–silicate–phosphate char network, achieved a 6.1× expansion ratio, limited backside steel temperature to 227°C, and retained 36% char at 800°C, which significantly outperformed the unmodified epoxy system. GC–MS confirmed a substantial (≈53%) reduction in toxic volatile emissions. A machine-learning model further validated char compactness with >94% classification accuracy. Collectively, the results demonstrate that synergistic inorganic–siloxane modification offers a scalable, halogen-free pathway to next-generation epoxy-based IFRCs with enhanced fire resistance and markedly lower toxicity.
Downloads
[1] Fenimore, C. P. (1975). Candle-Type Test for Flammability of Polymers. Flame-retardant Polymeric Materials, 1975, 371–397. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2148-4_9.
[2] Gomez-Mares, M., Tugnoli, A., Landucci, G., Barontini, F., & Cozzani, V. (2012). Behavior of intumescent epoxy resins in fireproofing applications. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 97, 99–108. doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2012.05.010.
[3] Volkova, N. N., Tarasov, V. P., Erofeev, L. N., & Gorbatkina, Y. A. (2006). The kinetics of thermal degradation and the structure of bisphenol-a epoxy binder modified by active plasticizer. Polymer Science - Series B, 48(2), 96–100. doi:10.1134/S1560090406030109.
[4] Daelemans, L., Van Der Heijden, S., De Baere, I., Muhammad, I., Van Paepegem, W., Rahier, H., & De Clerck, K. (2015). Bisphenol A based polyester binder as an effective interlaminar toughener. Composites Part B: Engineering, 80, 145–153. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.05.044.
[5] Pimenta, J. T., Gonçalves, C., Hiliou, L., Coelho, J. F. J., & Magalhães, F. D. (2016). Effect of binder on performance of intumescent coatings. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 13(2), 227–238. doi:10.1007/s11998-015-9737-5.
[6] Duquesne, S., Magnet, S., Jama, C., & Delobel, R. (2005). Thermoplastic resins for thin film intumescent coatings - Towards a better understanding of their effect on intumescence efficiency. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 88(1), 63–69. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2004.01.026.
[7] Mohd Sabee, M. M. S., Itam, Z., Beddu, S., Zahari, N. M., Mohd Kamal, N. L., Mohamad, D., Zulkepli, N. A., Shafiq, M. D., & Abdul Hamid, Z. A. (2022). Flame Retardant Coatings: Additives, Binders, and Fillers. Polymers, 14(14), 2911. doi:10.3390/polym14142911.
[8] Gao, Y. J., Jin, W. J., Hu, B. Q., Cheng, X. W., & Guan, J. P. (2023). Preparation of a Reactive Phosphorus/nitrogen-Based Intumescent Flame Retardant Coating for Cotton Fabrics. Journal of Natural Fibers, 20(1), 2153195. doi:10.1080/15440478.2022.2153195.
[9] Shiu, B. C., Wu, K., Lou, C. W., Lin, Q., & Lin, J. H. (2021). Synthesis of a compound phosphorus-nitrogen intumescent flame retardant for applications to raw lacquer. Polymers, 13(17), 2858. doi:10.3390/polym13172858.
[10] Malkappa, K., Prasad, C., Kang, C. S., Jeong, S. G., Sangaraju, S., Shin, E. J., & Choi, H. Y. (2025). Recent developments of phosphorous–nitrogen-based effective intumescent flame-retardant for polymers and textiles. Polymer Bulletin, 82(11), 5139–5199. doi:10.1007/s00289-025-05689-4.
[11] Gao, X., Shen, J., Sun, Q., Zhang, J., & Sheng, J. (2023). Study on char reinforcing of different inorganic fillers for polyethylene composites. Ceramics International, 49(6), 9566–9573. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.11.126.
[12] Al-Hassany, Z. (2024). Ceramifiable polymer composites for fire protection application. Doctoral Dissertation, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.
[13] Chen, S. N., Li, P. K., Hsieh, T. H., Ho, K. S., & Hong, Y. M. (2021). Enhancements on flame resistance by inorganic silicate-based intumescent coating materials. Materials, 14(21), 6628. doi:10.3390/ma14216628.
[14] Liu, L., Zhang, Y., Li, L., & Wang, Z. (2011). Microencapsulated ammonium polyphosphate with epoxy resin shell: Preparation, characterization, and application in EP system. Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 22(12), 2403–2408. doi:10.1002/pat.1776.
[15] Hu, X., & Sun, Z. (2021). Nano CaAlCO3-layered double hydroxide-doped intumescent fire-retardant coating for mitigating wood fire hazards. Journal of Building Engineering, 44, 102987. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102987.
[16] Xu, Z., Deng, N., & Yan, L. (2020). Flame retardancy and smoke suppression properties of transparent intumescent fire-retardant coatings reinforced with layered double hydroxides. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 17(1), 157–169. doi:10.1007/s11998-019-00249-8.
[17] Hu, X., Zhu, X., & Sun, Z. (2020). Fireproof performance of the intumescent fire retardant coatings with layered double hydroxides additives. Construction and Building Materials, 256, 119445. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119445.
[18] Gillani, Q. F., Ahmad, F., Mutalib, M. I. A., Megat-Yusoff, P. S. M., & Ullah, S. (2018). Effects of Halloysite Nanotube Reinforcement in Expandable Graphite Based Intumescent Fire-Retardant Coatings Developed Using Hybrid Epoxy Binder System. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science (English Edition), 36(11), 1286–1296. doi:10.1007/s10118-018-2148-1.
[19] Lee, Y. X., Ahmad, F., Kabir, S., Masset, P. J., Onate, E., & Yeoh, G. H. (2022). Synergistic effects of tubular halloysite clay and zirconium phosphate on thermal behavior of intumescent coating for structural steel. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 18, 4456–4469. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.04.097.
[20] Banijamali, M. S., Arabi, A. M., Jannesari, A., & Pasbakhsh, P. (2023). Synthesis and characterization of an intumescent halloysite based fire-retardant epoxy system. Applied Clay Science, 241, 106995. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2023.106995.
[21] Zhang, Q., Shu, Y., Zhang, Y., Huo, S., Ye, G., Wang, C., & Liu, Z. (2024). Effect of functionalized halloysite nanotubes on fire resistance and water tolerance of intumescent fire-retardant coatings for steel structures. Progress in Organic Coatings, 197, 108843. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2024.108843.
[22] Yu, J., Guo, C., Wang, J., Song, J., Wang, Y., Cheng, J., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, F. (2024). Preparation of bio-based trinity lignin intumescent flame retardant and its effect on burning behavior and heat transfer process of epoxy resin composites. Progress in Organic Coatings, 195, 108653. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2024.108653.
[23] Zheng, C., Li, D., & Ek, M. (2019). Improving fire retardancy of cellulosic thermal insulating materials by coating with bio-based fire retardants. Nordic Pulp and Paper Research Journal, 34(1), 96–106. doi:10.1515/npprj-2018-0031.
[24] Fan, Z., Li, Y., He, J., Song, B., Chang, M., Fang, X., Yu, L., Yang, G., Guo, H., & Liu, Y. (2025). Bio-based intelligent multifunctional coating for wood: Flame retardancy, fire warning, smoke suppression, thermal insulation and antibacterial activity. Construction and Building Materials, 465, 140244. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.140244.
[25] Wang, X., Nabipour, H., Kan, Y. C., Song, L., & Hu, Y. (2022). A fully bio-based, anti-flammable and non-toxic epoxy thermosetting network for flame-retardant coating applications. Progress in Organic Coatings, 172, 107095. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2022.107095.
[26] Yew, M. C., Yew, M. K., Saw, L. H., Ng, T. C., Durairaj, R., & Beh, J. H. (2018). Influences of nano bio-filler on the fire-resistive and mechanical properties of water-based intumescent coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings, 124, 33–40. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2018.07.022.
[27] Petrović, E. K. (2024). Sustainability and toxicity of polymers, plastics, and coatings in buildings. Sustainability and Toxicity of Building Materials, 2024, 309–333. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-98336-5.00015-7.
[28] Celiński, M., & Sankowska, M. (2016). Explosibility, flammability and the thermal decomposition of Bisphenol A, the main component of epoxy resin. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 44, 125–131. doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2016.08.024.
[29] Wang, X., Weinell, C. E., Ring, L., & Kiil, S. (2021). Proof of concept investigation of alternative and less harmful boron compounds for epoxy-based hydrocarbon intumescent coatings. Fire Safety Journal, 125, 103437. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2021.103437.
[30] Nazrun, T., Hassan, M. K., Hasnat, M. R., Hossain, M. D., Ahmed, B., & Saha, S. (2025). A Comprehensive Review on Intumescent Coatings: Formulation, Manufacturing Methods, Research Development, and Issues. Fire, 8(4), 155. doi:10.3390/fire8040155.
[31] Hu, X., Zhu, X., & Sun, Z. (2019). Efficient flame-retardant and smoke-suppression properties of MgAlCO3-LDHs on the intumescent fire-retardant coating for steel structures. Progress in Organic Coatings, 135, 291–298. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.06.014.
[32] Guo, B., Liu, Y., Zhang, Q., Wang, F., Wang, Q., Liu, Y., Li, J., & Yu, H. (2017). Efficient Flame-Retardant and Smoke-Suppression Properties of Mg-Al-Layered Double-Hydroxide Nanostructures on Wood Substrate. ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, 9(27), 23039–23047. doi:10.1021/acsami.7b06803.
[33] Yorkgitis, E. M., Eiss Jr, N. S., Tran, C., Wilkes, G. L., & McGrath, J. E. (2005). Siloxane-modified epoxy resins. In Epoxy Resins and Composites I, 79-109. doi:10.1007/3-540-15546-5_4.
[34] Chiu, Y. C., Huang, C. C., & Tsai, H. C. (2014). Synthesis, characterization, and thermo mechanical properties of siloxane-modified epoxy-based nano composite. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 131(21), 40984. doi:10.1002/app.40984.
[35] Lee, Y. X., Ahmad, F., Karuppanan, S., Sumby, C., Shahed, C. A., & Ramli, S. H. (2024). Thermo-mechanical performance of wolframite mineral reinforced siloxane-modified epoxy-based intumescent coating for structural steel. Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 35(1). doi:10.1002/pat.6279.
[36] Hörold, S. (2014). Phosphorus-based and intumescent flame retardants. Polymer Green Flame Retardants, 221-254. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53808-6.00006-8.
[37] Wang, G., Huang, Y., & Hu, X. (2013). Synthesis of a novel phosphorus-containing polymer and its application in amino intumescent fire resistant coating. Progress in Organic Coatings, 76(1), 188–193. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2012.09.005.
[38] Chen, L., Song, L., Lv, P., Jie, G., Tai, Q., Xing, W., & Hu, Y. (2011). A new intumescent flame retardant containing phosphorus and nitrogen: Preparation, thermal properties and application to UV curable coating. Progress in Organic Coatings, 70(1), 59–66. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2010.10.002.
[39] Yasir, M., Ahmad, F., Yusoff, P. S. M. M., Ullah, S., & Jimenez, M. (2020). Latest trends for structural steel protection by using intumescent fire protective coatings: a review. Surface Engineering, 36(4), 334–363. doi:10.1080/02670844.2019.1636536.
[40] Anees, S. M., & Dasari, A. (2018). A review on the environmental durability of intumescent coatings for steels. Journal of Materials Science, 53(1), 124–145. doi:10.1007/s10853-017-1500-0.
[41] Lai, Z., Chen, J., Yu, Y., Luo, M., & Li, H. (2024). Effect of magnesium hydroxide on the properties of fireproof coatings for steel structure based on magnesium phosphate cement. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 21. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03853.
[42] Fu, A., Ulusoy, B., Ahmadi, H., Wu, H., & Dam-Johansen, K. (2024). Mechanistic study of a silicon-based intumescent coating system. Progress in Organic Coatings, 190, 108354. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2024.108354.
[43] Chen, L., Zeng, S., Xu, Y., Nie, W., Zhou, Y., & Chen, P. (2022). Epoxy-modified silicone resin-based N/P/Si synergistic flame-retardant coating for wood surface. Progress in Organic Coatings, 170, 106953. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2022.106953.
[44] Fu, A., Ahmadi, H., Ulusoy, B., Wu, H., Etxeberria, A. L., & Dam-Johansen, K. (2025). Formulation optimization of a silicon-based fire protective coating in terms of intumescent alkali silicate particles. Construction and Building Materials, 474, 141143. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.141143.
[45] Gillani, Q. F., Ahmad, F., Abdul Mutalib, M. I., Megat-Yusoff, P. S. M., Ullah, S., Messet, P. J., & Zia-ul-Mustafa, M. (2018). Thermal degradation and pyrolysis analysis of zinc borate reinforced intumescent fire-retardant coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings, 123, 82–98. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2018.05.007.
[46] Strassburger, D., Silveira, M. R., Baldissera, A. F., & Ferreira, C. A. (2023). Performance of different water-based resins in the formulation of intumescent coatings for passive fire protection. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 20(1), 201–221. doi:10.1007/s11998-021-00597-4.
[47] Zia-ul-Mustafa, M., Ahmad, F., Ullah, S., Amir, N., & Gillani, Q. F. (2017). Thermal and pyrolysis analysis of minerals reinforced intumescent fire-retardant coating. Progress in Organic Coatings, 102, 201–216. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2016.10.014.
[48] Arogundade, A. I., Megat Yussof, P. S. M., Ahmad, F., & Muhammad, I. D. (2025). A Comparative Study of the Reinforcing Effect of Bauxite Residue in Pentaerythritol and Expandable Graphite Based Intumescent Systems. Advanced Materials Research, 1184, 3–12. doi:10.4028/p-ex8ela.
[49] Fan, F. Q., Xia, Z. Bin, Li, Q. Y., & Li, Z. (2013). Effects of inorganic fillers on the shear viscosity and fire-retardant performance of waterborne intumescent coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings, 76(5), 844–851. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2013.02.002.
[50] Wang, X., Song, L., Yang, H., Lu, H., & Hu, Y. (2011). Synergistic effect of graphene on antidripping and fire resistance of intumescent flame-retardant poly(butylene succinate) composites. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 50(9), 5376–5383. doi:10.1021/ie102566y.
[51] Hsiue, G. H., Liu, Y. L., & Tsiao, J. (2000). Phosphorus-containing epoxy resins for flame retardancy. V: Synergistic effect of phosphorus-silicon on flame retardancy. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 78(1), 1–7. doi:10.1002/1097-4628(20001003)78:1<1::AID-APP10>3.0.CO;2-0.
[52] Bodzay, B., Bocz, K., Bárkai, Z., & Marosi, G. (2011). Influence of rheological additives on char formation and fire resistance of intumescent coatings. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 96(3), 355–362. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.03.022.
[53] Chung, Y. C., Kim, J. H., Park, J. E., & Chun, B. C. (2022). Flexible crosslinking of polyurethane using grafted poly(dimethylsiloxane) with Epichlorohydrin and Bisphenol A end groups and its impact on the mechanical properties and low-temperature flexibility. Journal of Elastomers and Plastics, 54(4), 555–573. doi:10.1177/00952443211063599.
[54] Socrates, G. (2004). Infrared and Raman characteristic group frequencies: tables and charts. John Wiley & Sons, New York, United States.
[55] Askar, K. A., & Song, K. (2018). Epoxy-based multifunctional nanocomposites. Polymer-Based Multifunctional Nanocomposites and Their Applications, 2019, 111–135. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-815067-2.00004-4.
[56] Romo-Uribe, A., Arcos-Casarrubias, J. A., Reyes-Mayer, A., & Guardian-Tapia, R. (2017). PDMS Nanodomains in DGEBA Epoxy Induce High Flexibility and Toughness. Polymer - Plastics Technology and Engineering, 56(1), 96–107. doi:10.1080/03602559.2016.1211691.
[57] Lin, S. T., & Huang, S. K. (1997). Thermal degradation study of siloxane-DGEBA epoxy copolymers. European Polymer Journal, 33(3), 365–373. doi:10.1016/S0014-3057(96)00175-9.
[58] Sobhani, S., Jannesari, A., & Bastani, S. (2012). Effect of molecular weight and content of PDMS on morphology and properties of silicone-modified epoxy resin. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 123(1), 162–178. doi:10.1002/app.34435.
[59] Sun, X., Chen, R., Gao, X., Liu, Q., Liu, J., Zhang, H., ... & Wang, J. (2019). Fabrication of epoxy modified polysiloxane with enhanced mechanical properties for marine antifouling application. European Polymer Journal, 117, 77-85. doi:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2019.05.002.
[60] Zhou, C., Li, R., Luo, W., Chen, Y., Zou, H., Liang, M., & Li, Y. (2016). The preparation and properties study of polydimethylsiloxane-based coatings modified by epoxy resin. Journal of Polymer Research, 23(1), 1–10. doi:10.1007/s10965-015-0903-3.
[61] Thanikai Velan, T. V., & Mohammed Bilal, I. (2000). Aliphatic amine cured PDMS-epoxy interpenetrating network system for high performance engineering applications - development and characterization. Bulletin of Materials Science, 23(5), 425–429. doi:10.1007/bf02708394.
[62] Bax, A., Ferretti, J. A., Nashed, N., & Jerina, D. M. (1985). Complete 1H and 13C NMR Assignment of Complex Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Journal of Organic Chemistry, 50(17), 3029–3034. doi:10.1021/jo00217a001.
[63] Hansen, P. E. (1979). 13C NMR of polycyclic aromatic compounds. A review. Organic Magnetic Resonance, 12(3), 109–142. doi:10.1002/mrc.1270120302.
[64] Miyajima, G., & Nishimoto, K. (1974). Carbon‐13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy: VIII—aliphatic hydrocarbon derivatives. Organic Magnetic Resonance, 6(6), 313–321. doi:10.1002/mrc.1270060604.
[65] Sima, W., Pang, W., Sun, P., Yuan, T., Yang, M., Chen, X., Li, Z., Liu, X., & Tang, X. (2024). Design of epoxy composites via molecular orbital modulation and enhanced π-πF interactions achieving synchronous improvement of electrical and mechanical performance. Chemical Engineering Journal, 500, 156745. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2024.156745.
[66] Cook, M., & Harper, J. F. (1998). The influence of magnesium hydroxide morphology on the crystallinity and properties of filled polypropylene. Advances in Polymer Technology, 17(1), 53–62. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2329(199821)17:1<53::AID-ADV5>3.0.CO;2-H.
[67] Lan, S., Zhu, D., Li, L., Liu, Z., Zeng, Z., & Song, F. (2018). Surface modification of magnesium hydroxide particles using silane coupling agent by dry process. Surface and Interface Analysis, 50(3), 277–283. doi:10.1002/sia.6363.
[68] Dreyfuss, P. (1978). Chemistry of Silane Coupling Reactions. 1. Reaction of Trimethylmethoxysilane and Triethylsilanol Studied by Gas-Liquid Chromatography. Macromolecules, 11(5), 1031–1036. doi:10.1021/ma60065a035.
[69] Thirumalaikumar, M. (2022). Ring Opening Reactions of Epoxides. A Review. Organic Preparations and Procedures International, 54(1), 1–39. doi:10.1080/00304948.2021.1979357.
[70] Branda, F., Passaro, J., Pauer, R., Gaan, S., & Bifulco, A. (2022). Solvent-Free One-Pot Synthesis of Epoxy Nanocomposites Containing Mg(OH)2 Nanocrystal−Nanoparticle Formation Mechanism. Langmuir, 38(18), 5795–5802. doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c00377.
[71] Díaz, U., Brunel, D., & Corma, A. (2013). Catalysis using multifunctional organosiliceous hybrid materials. Chemical Society Reviews, 42(9), 4083–4097. doi:10.1039/c2cs35385g.
[72] Wang, Y., Yan, L., Ling, Y., Ge, Y., Huang, C., Zhou, S., Xia, S., Liang, M., & Zou, H. (2023). Enhanced mechanical and adhesive properties of PDMS coatings via in-situ formation of uniformly dispersed epoxy reinforcing phase. Progress in Organic Coatings, 174(107319). doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2022.107319.
[73] Wang, Y., Cai, Y., Ling, Y., Zhang, H., Tian, J., Heng, Z., Zhou, S., Xia, S., Liang, M., & Zou, H. (2023). Improved Mechanical and Ablative Properties of PDMS Coatings Incorporating Epoxy as a Suspended Chain. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 62(25), 9920–9931. doi:10.1021/acs.iecr.3c00814.
[74] Zope, I. S. (2018). Fire retardancy behavior of polymer/clay nanocomposites. Springer, Berlin, Germany. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-8327-3.
[75] Yang, Y., Niu, M., Bai, J., Xue, B., & Dai, J. (2018). Preparation of microencapsulated carbon microspheres coated by magnesium hydroxide/polyethylene terephthalate flame–retardant functional fibers and its flame-retardant properties. Journal of the Textile Institute, 109(4), 445–454. doi:10.1080/00405000.2017.1351655.
[76] Wilkie, C. A., & Morgan, A. B. (2024). Fire retardancy of polymeric materials. CRC Press, Florida, United States. doi:10.1201/9781003380689.
[77] Jimenez, M., Duquesne, S., & Bourbigot, S. (2006). Intumescent fire protective coating: Toward a better understanding of their mechanism of action. Thermochimica Acta, 449(1–2), 16–26. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2006.07.008.
[78] Guo, F., Zhang, Y., Cai, L., & Li, L. (2022). Functionalized graphene with Platelet-like magnesium hydroxide for enhancing fire safety, smoke suppression and toxicity reduction of Epoxy resin. Applied Surface Science, 578, 152052. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.152052.
[79] Qiu, X., Li, Z., Li, X., & Zhang, Z. (2018). Flame retardant coatings prepared using layer by layer assembly: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 334, 108–122. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2017.09.194.
[80] Laoutid, F., Bonnaud, L., Alexandre, M., Lopez-Cuesta, J. M., & Dubois, P. (2009). New prospects in flame retardant polymer materials: From fundamentals to nanocomposites. Materials Science and Engineering R: Reports, 63(3), 100–125. doi:10.1016/j.mser.2008.09.002.
[81] Yang, J., Chen, X., Zhou, H., Guo, W., Zhang, J., Miao, Z., & He, D. (2022). Synergistic effect of expandable graphite and aluminum hypophosphite in flame-retardant ethylene vinyl acetate composites. Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 33(2), 638–646. doi:10.1002/pat.5546.
[82] Zhang, H., Zhang, D. Z., Wang, D. Y., Xu, Z. Y., Yang, Y., & Zhang, B. (2022). Flexible single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerator with MWCNT/PDMS composite film for environmental energy harvesting and human motion monitoring. Rare Metals, 41(9), 3117–3128. doi:10.1007/s12598-022-02031-z.
[83] Wang, Y., Cai, Y., Zhang, H., Zhou, J., Zhou, S., Chen, Y., Liang, M., & Zou, H. (2021). Mechanical and thermal degradation behavior of high-performance PDMS elastomer based on epoxy/silicone hybrid network. Polymer, 236, 124299. doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2021.124299.
[84] Azmi, Y., Ahmad, F., Kabir, S., Lee, Y. X., Zulfiqar, A., Yeoh, G. H., Qaiser, A., & Masset, P. J. (2023). Investigating the Mechanical Performance of Intumescent Coating Enhanced with Magnesium Oxide (MgO) for Structural Steel Application. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, 927–938. doi:10.1007/978-981-19-1939-8_69.
[85] Wang, F., Liu, H., & Yan, L. (2021). Comparative study of fire resistance and char formation of intumescent fire-retardant coatings reinforced with three types of shell bio-fillers. Polymers, 13(24), 4333. doi:10.3390/polym13244333.
[86] Mróz, K., Hager, I., & Korniejenko, K. (2016). Material Solutions for Passive Fire Protection of Buildings and Structures and Their Performances Testing. Procedia Engineering, 151, 284–291. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.07.388.
[87] Ahmed, H. B., Ramadan, A. M., Nour, M. A., Abd el-Malak, S. S., & Gomaa, A. E. A. Z. (2018). Innovative precursor for manufacturing of superior enhancer of intumescence for paint: Thermal insulative coating for steel structures. Progress in Organic Coatings, 118, 129–140. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2018.01.017.
[88] Wang, S., Wang, X., Wang, X., Li, H., Sun, J., Sun, W., Yao, Y., Gu, X., & Zhang, S. (2020). Surface coated rigid polyurethane foam with durable flame retardancy and improved mechanical property. Chemical Engineering Journal, 385, 123755. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2019.123755.
[89] Jefferson Andrew, J., Sain, M., Ramakrishna, S., Jawaid, M., & Dhakal, H. N. (2024). Environmentally friendly fire-retardant natural fibre composites: A review. International Materials Reviews, 69(5–6), 267–308. doi:10.1177/09506608241266302.
[90] Yeoh, G. H., De Cachinho Cordeiro, I. M., Wang, W., Wang, C., Yuen, A. C. Y., Chen, T. B. Y., ... & Chua, H. T. (2024). Carbon‐based flame retardants for polymers: a bottom‐up review. Advanced Materials, 36(42), 2403835. doi:10.1002/adma.202403835.
[91] Wang, Z., Han, E., & Ke, W. (2006). Effect of nanoparticles on the improvement in fire-resistant and anti-ageing properties of flame-retardant coating. Surface and Coatings Technology, 200(20–21), 5706–5716. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.08.102.
[92] Reich, S. J., Svidrytski, A., Höltzel, A., Wang, W., Kübel, C., Hlushkou, D., & Tallarek, U. (2019). Transport under confinement: Hindrance factors for diffusion in core-shell and fully porous particles with different mesopore space morphologies. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 282, 188–196. doi:10.1016/j.micromeso.2019.02.036.
[93] Bo, L., Hua, G., Xian, J., Zeinali Heris, S., Erfani Farsi Eidgah, E., Ghafurian, M. M., & Orooji, Y. (2024). Recent remediation strategies for flame retardancy via nanoparticles. Chemosphere, 354, 141323. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141323.
[94] Camino, G., Costa, L., & Trossarelli, L. (1984). Mechanism of Intumescence in Fire Retardant Additives for Polymers. American Chemical Society, Polymer Preprints, Division of Polymer Chemistry, 25(1), 90.
[95] Horrocks, A. R., & Price, D. (Eds.). (2008). Advances in fire retardant materials. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. doi:10.1533/9781845694701.
[96] Zybina, O., & Gravit, M. (2020). Intumescent coatings for fire protection of building structures and materials. Springer, Cham, Switzerland. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59422-0.
[97] Dorn, P. B., Chou, C. S., & Gentempo, J. J. (1987). Degradation of bisphenol A in natural waters. Chemosphere, 16(7), 1501–1507. doi:10.1016/0045-6535(87)90090-7.
[98] Levchik, S. V., & Weil, E. D. (2004). Thermal decomposition, combustion and flame-retardancy of epoxy resins - A review of the recent literature. Polymer International, 53(12), 1901–1929. doi:10.1002/pi.1473.
[99] Wang, H., Wang, Q., Huang, Z., & Shi, W. (2007). Synthesis and thermal degradation behaviors of hyperbranched polyphosphate. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 92(10), 1788–1794. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.07.008.
[100] Li, J., Wang, H., & Li, S. (2019). A novel phosphorus−silicon containing epoxy resin with enhanced thermal stability, flame retardancy and mechanical properties. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 164, 36–45. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.03.020.
[101] Jia, P., Liu, H., Liu, Q., & Cai, X. (2016). Thermal degradation mechanism and flame retardancy of MQ silicone/ epoxy resin composites. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 134, 144–150. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2016.09.029.
[102] Niemczyk, A., Dziubek, K., Sacher-Majewska, B., Czaja, K., Czech-Polak, J., Oliwa, R., Lenza, J., & Szołyga, M. (2018). Thermal stability and flame retardancy of polypropylene composites containing siloxane-silsesquioxane resins. Polymers, 10(9), 1019. doi:10.3390/polym10091019.
[103] Jimenez, M., Duquesne, S., & Bourbigot, S. (2012). Fire protection of polypropylene and polycarbonate by intumescent coatings. Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 23(1), 130–135. doi:10.1002/pat.1809.
[104] Thabah, S., Rai, A. K., & Joshi, S. R. (2025). Geomicrobes in Environmental Remediation of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons. Mineral Transformation and Bioremediation by Geo-Microbes. Springer, 2025, 415–431. doi:10.1007/978-981-96-3033-2_16.
[105] Wang, Q. (2015). Preparation and surface modification of Mg(OH)2/siloxane nanocomposite flame retardant. Journal of Polymer Engineering, 35(2), 113–117. doi:10.1515/polyeng-2014-0032.
[106] Ning, Y., & Guo, S. (2000). Flame-retardant and smoke-suppressant properties of zinc borate and aluminum trihydrate-filled rigid PVC. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 77(14), 3119–3127. doi:10.1002/1097-4628(20000929)77:14<3142::AID-APP150>3.0.CO;2-2.
[107] Hameed, N. A., Abbas, S. J., Thamer, M. J., & Abbas, S. Q. (2022). Implementation of the Mgo/Epoxy Nanocomposites as Flame Retardant. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies, 3(6–117), 53–57. doi:10.15587/1729-4061.2022.260359.
[108] Gillani, Q. F., Ahmad, F., Melor, P. S., Mutlib, M. I. A., & Ullah, S. (2018). A synergy study of zinc borate in halloysite nanotube reinforced, siloxane epoxy base intumescent fire resistive coatings: Eine Synergieuntersuchung zu Zinkborat in, mit Halloysit-Nanoröhren verstärkten, Siloxane Epoxy basierten, intumeszenten feuerfesten Beschichtungen. Materialwissenschaft Und Werkstofftechnik, 49(4), 420–426. doi:10.1002/mawe.201700254.
[109] Murat Unlu, S., Tayfun, U., Yildirim, B., & Dogan, M. (2017). Effect of boron compounds on fire protection properties of epoxy based intumescent coating. Fire and Materials, 41(1), 17–28. doi:10.1002/fam.2360.
[110] Otáhal, R., Veselý, D., Násadová, J., Zíma, V., Němec, P., & Kalenda, P. (2011). Intumescent coatings based on an organic-inorganic hybrid resin and the effect of mineral fibres on fire-resistant properties of intumescent coatings. Pigment and Resin Technology, 40(4), 247–253. doi:10.1108/03699421111147326.
[111] Nandiyanto, A. B. D., Oktiani, R., & Ragadhita, R. (2019). How to read and interpret ftir spectroscope of organic material. Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology, 4(1), 97–118. doi:10.17509/ijost.v4i1.15806.
[112] Wang, L. L., Wang, Y. C., & Li, G. Q. (2013). Experimental study of hydrothermal aging effects on insulative properties of intumescent coating for steel elements. Fire Safety Journal, 55, 168–181. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2012.10.004.
[113] Balakrishnan, G., Velavan, R., Mujasam Batoo, K., & Raslan, E. H. (2020). Microstructure, optical and photocatalytic properties of MgO nanoparticles. Results in Physics, 16, 103013. doi:10.1016/j.rinp.2020.103013.
[114] Stec, A. A. (2017). Fire toxicity–the elephant in the room?. Fire Safety Journal, 91, 79-90. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.05.003.
[115] Babrauskas, V. (2008). Quantifying the combustion product hazard on the basis of test results. Hazards of combustion products: toxicity, opacity, corrosivity and heat release. London: Interscience Communications, 339-353.
[116] Verma, N., Pink, M., Rettenmeier, A. W., & Schmitz-Spanke, S. (2012). Review on proteomic analyses of benzo[a]pyrene toxicity. Proteomics, 12(11), 1731–1755. doi:10.1002/pmic.201100466.
[117] English, C. (2022). Understanding the origins of siloxane ghost peaks in gas chromatography. Column (LCGC International), 18, 10-15.
[118] Puri, R. G., & Khanna, A. S. (2017). Intumescent coatings: A review on recent progress. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 14(1), 1-20. doi:10.1007/s11998-016-9815-3.
[119] de Sá, S. C., de Souza, M. M., Peres, R. S., Zmozinski, A. V., Braga, R. M., de Araújo Melo, D. M., & Ferreira, C. A. (2017). Environmentally friendly intumescent coatings formulated with vegetable compounds. Progress in Organic Coatings, 113, 47–59. doi:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2017.08.007.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
